António Damásio António Rosa Damásio, GOSE is a Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist living and working in the United States. He is David Dornsife Professor of Neuroscience at the University of Southern California, where he heads USC's Brain and Creativity Institute. Prior to taking up his posts at USC, in 2005, Damásio was M.W. Van Allen Phineas Gage Phineas P. Gage [n 2] was an American railroad construction foreman now remembered for his incredible survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior—effects so profound that friends Norman Geschwind Norman Geschwind can be considered the father of modern behavioral neurology in America. He was mentor to the cadre of behavioral neurologists who would shape the subspecialty for the 20th and early 21st centuries Elkhonon Goldberg Elkhonon Goldberg is a neuropsychologist and cognitive neuroscientist known for his work in hemispheric specialization and the "novelty-routinization" theory Patricia Goldman Rakic Patricia Goldman-Rakic (born Patricia Shoer) (April 22, 1937 – July 31, 2003) was an American neuroscientist/neurobiologist known for her pioneering study of the frontal lobe and her work on the cellular basis of working memory Pasko Rakic Pasko Rakic is a neuroscientist at Yale University. Rakic has been elected to the National Academy of Sciences USA, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Presidency of the Society for Neuroscience. He was a co-recipient, with Thomas Jessell and Sten Grillner, of the inaugural Kavli Prize for Neuroscience in 2008.. He is also a foreign Donald O. Hebb Donald Olding Hebb was a Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and neural networks Kenneth Heilman He attended the University of Virginia and graduated from the University of Virginia School of Medicine in 1963 Edith Kaplan Edith Kaplan was a respected pioneer of neuropsychological tests who did most of her work at the Boston VA Hospital. Throughout her 50-year career in psychology, Dr. Edith Kaplan made invaluable contributions to the promotion of clinical neuropsychology as a specialty area in psychology. Her impact on our field is widespread, and encompasses many Muriel Lezak Muriel Deutsch Lezak is an American neuropsychologist best known for her book Neuropsychological Assessment, widely accepted as the standard in the field. She holds bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Chicago, and earned a Ph.D. from the University of Portland in 1960 Benjamin Libet Benjamin Libet (April 12, 1916 - July 23, 2007) was a researcher in the physiology department of the University of California, San Francisco, and a pioneering scientist in the field of human consciousness. In 2003, he was the first recipient of the Virtual Nobel Prize in Psychology from the University of Klagenfurt, "for his pioneering Rodolfo Llinás Rodolfo R. Llinás is the Thomas and Suzanne Murphy Professor of Neuroscience and Chairman of the department of Physiology & Neuroscience at the NYU School of Medicine. He went to the Gimnasio Moderno school and received his MD from the Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá in 1959 and his PhD in 1965 from the Australian National University working Alexander Luria Alexander Romanovich Luria was a famous Soviet neuropsychologist and developmental psychologist. He was one of the founders of cultural-historical psychology and psychological activity theory Brenda Milner Brenda Milner, CC, GOQ, FRS has contributed extensively to the research literature on various topics in the field of clinical neuropsychology Karl H. Pribram Karl H. Pribram is a professor at Georgetown University , and an emeritus professor of psychology and psychiatry at Stanford University and Radford University. Board-certified as a neurosurgeon, Pribram did pioneering work on the definition of the limbic system, the relationship of the frontal cortex to the limbic system, the sensory-specific & Oliver Sacks Oliver Wolf Sacks, CBE , is a British neurologist residing in New York City. He is a professor of neurology and psychiatry at Columbia University, where he also holds the position of Columbia Artist. He previously spent many years on the clinical faculty of Yeshiva University's Albert Einstein College of Medicine Mark Rosenzweig Mark Richard Rosenzweig was an American research psychologist who found in animal studies on neuroplasticity that the brain continues developing anatomically, reshaping and repairing itself into adulthood based on life experiences, overturning the conventional wisdom that the brain reached full maturity in childhood Roger W. Sperry Roger Wolcott Sperry was a neuropsychologist, neurobiologist and Nobel laureate who, together with David Hunter Hubel and Torsten Nils Wiesel, won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work with split-brain research

Benton Visual Retention Test The Benton Visual Retention Test is an individually administered test for ages 8-adult that measures visual perception and visual memory . It can also be used to help identify possible learning disabilities. The child is shown 10 designs, one at a time, and asked to reproduce each one as exactly as possible on plain paper from memory. The test is Clinical Dementia Rating The Clinical Dementia Rating or CDR is a numeric scale used to quantify the severity of symptoms of dementia Continuous Performance Task A Continuous Performance Task/Test, or CPT, is a psychological test which measures a person's sustained and selective attention and impulsivity. Sustained attention is the ability to maintain a consistent focus on some continuous activity or stimuli, and is associated with impulsivity. Selective attention is the ability to focus on relevant Glasgow Coma Scale Glasgow Coma Scale or GCS is a neurological scale that aims to give a reliable, objective way of recording the conscious state of a person for initial as well as subsequent assessment. A patient is assessed against the criteria of the scale, and the resulting points give a patient score between 3 and either 14 (original scale) or 15 (the more Hayling and Brixton tests The Hayling and Brixton tests are neuropsychological tests of executive function created by psychologists Paul W. Burgess and Tim Shallice Johari window A Johari window is a cognitive psychological tool created by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 in the United States, used to help people better understand their interpersonal communication and relationships. It is used primarily in self-help groups and corporate settings as a heuristic exercise Lexical decision task The lexical decision task is a procedure used in many psychology and psycholinguistics experiments. The basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords. Although versions of the task had been used by researchers for a number of years, the term lexical decision task was coined by David E. Meyer and Roger Mini-mental state examination The mini-mental state examination or Folstein test is a brief 30-point questionnaire test that is used to screen for cognitive impairment. It is commonly used in medicine to screen for dementia. It is also used to estimate the severity of cognitive impairment at a given point in time and to follow the course of cognitive changes in an individual Stroop effect In psychology, the Stroop effect is a demonstration of the reaction time of a task. When the name of a color is printed in a color not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are the primary clinical instruments used to measure adult and adolescent intelligence. The original WAIS (Form I) was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale. The fourth edition of the test (WAIS-IV) was released

Neuropsychology is the basic scientific discipline that studies the structure and function of the brain The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate, and most invertebrate, animals. Some primitive animals such as jellyfish and starfish have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary related to specific psychological processes and overt behaviors. The term neuropsychology has been applied to lesion studies Because the definition of lesion is so broad, the varieties of lesions are virtually endless. They are subsequently classified by their features. If a lesion is caused by a tumor it will be classified as malignant versus benign. Lesions may be classified by the shape they form, as is the case with many ulcers, which can have a bullseye or 'target' in humans and animals. It has also been applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients).^[1] It is scientific Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of in its approach and shares an information processing Information processing is the change of information in any manner detectable by an observer. As such, it is a process which describes everything which happens (changes) in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system. In the latter case, an information processor is view of the mind with cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology is a discipline within psychology that investigates the internal mental processes of thought such as visual processing, memory, thinking, learning, feeling, problem solving, and language and cognitive science Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, e.g., how information is represented and transformed in a brain or in a machine. It consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, learning sciences, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and education. It. It is one of the more eclectic Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases of the psychological disciplines, overlapping at times with areas such as neuroscience Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology. Nevertheless, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that involves other disciplines such as psychology, computer science, mathematics, physics, philosophy, and medicine. As a result, the scope of neuroscience has, philosophy Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is distinguished from other ways of addressing fundamental questions by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational argument. The word "philosophy" comes from the (particularly philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind is a branch of modern analytic philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind-body problem, i.e. the relationship of the mind to the body, is commonly seen as the central issue in), neurology Neurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. The corresponding surgical specialty, psychiatry Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental disorders—which include various affective, behavioural, cognitive and perceptual disorders. The term was first coined by the German physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808. It literally means the 'medical treatment of the mind' . A medical doctor specializing in and computer science Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that create, describe, and transform information. Computer science (particularly by making use of artificial neural networks An artificial neural network , usually called "neural network" (NN), is a mathematical model or computational model that tries to simulate the structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural networks. It consists of an interconnected group of artificial neurons and processes information using a connectionist approach to).

In practice neuropsychologists tend to work in academia Academia, Acadème, or the Academy are collective terms for the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research (involved in basic or clinical research), clinical settings (involved in assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological problems – see clinical neuropsychology Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical psychology that specializes in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with brain injury or neurocognitive deficits), forensic settings (often assessing people for legal reasons or court cases or working with offenders, or appearing in court as expert witness) or industry (often as consultants where neuropsychological knowledge is applied to product design or in the management of pharmaceutical clinical-trials research for drugs that might have a potential impact on CNS functioning).

Approaches

Experimental neuropsychology is an approach which uses methods from experimental psychology to uncover the relationship between the nervous system and cognitive function. The majority of work involves studying healthy humans in a laboratory setting, although a minority of researchers may conduct animal experiments. Human work in this area often takes advantage of specific features of our nervous system (for example that visual information presented to a specific visual field is preferentially processed by the cortical hemisphere on the opposite side) to make links between neuroanatomy and psychological function.

Clinical neuropsychology is the application of neuropsychological knowledge to the assessment (see neuropsychological test and neuropsychological assessment), management and rehabilitation of people who have suffered illness or injury (particularly to the brain) which has caused neurocognitive problems. In particular they bring a psychological viewpoint to treatment, to understand how such illness and injury may affect and be affected by psychological factors. They also can offer an opinion as to whether a person is demonstrating difficulties due to brain pathology or as a consequence of emotional or other (potentially) reversible cause. Clinical neuropsychologists often work in hospital settings in an interdisciplinary medical team, others work in private practice and may provide expert input into medico-legal proceedings.

Cognitive neuropsychology is a relatively new development and has emerged as a distillation of the complementary approaches of both experimental and clinical neuropsychology. It seeks to understand the mind and brain by studying people who have suffered brain injury or neurological illness. One model of neuropsychological functioning is known as functional localization. This is based on the principle that if a specific cognitive problem can be found after an injury to a specific area of the brain, it is possible that this part of the brain is in some way involved. However, there may be reason to believe that the link between mental functions and neural regions is not so simple. An alternative model of the link between mind and brain, such as parallel processing, may have more explanatory power for the workings and dysfunction of the human brain. Yet another approach investigates how the pattern of errors produced by brain-damaged individuals can constrain our understanding of mental representations and processes without reference to the underlying neural structure. A more recent but related approach is cognitive neuropsychiatry which seeks to understand the normal function of mind and brain by studying psychiatric or mental illness.

Connectionism is the use of artificial neural networks to model specific cognitive processes using what are considered to be simplified but plausible models of how neurons operate. Once trained to perform a specific cognitive task these networks are often damaged or 'lesioned' to simulate brain injury or impairment in an attempt to understand and compare the results to the effects of brain injury in humans.

Functional neuroimaging uses specific neuroimaging technologies to take readings from the brain, usually when a person is doing a particular task, in an attempt to understand how the activation of particular brain areas is related to the task. In particular, the growth of methodologies to employ cognitive testing within established functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques to study brain-behavior relations is having a notable influence on neuropsychological research.

In practice these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most neuropsychologists select the best approach or approaches for the task to be completed.

Methods and tools

• the use of standardized neuropsychological tests. These tasks have been designed so the performance on the task can be linked to specific neurocognitive processes. These tests are typically standardized, meaning that they have been administered to a specific group (or goups) of individuals before being used in individual clinical cases. The data resulting from standardization are known as normative data. After these data have been collected and analyzed, they are used as the comparative standard against which individual performances can be compared. Examples of neuropsychological tests include: the Wechsler Adult Memory Scale (WMS), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Other tests include the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery, the Boston Naming Test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Benton Visual Retention Test, and the Controlled Oral Word Association. (The Woodcock Johnson and the Nelson-Denny are not neuropsychological tests per se. They are psycho-educational batteries of tests used to measure an individual's intra-disciplinary strengths and weakness in specific academic areas (writing, reading and arithmetic)).

• the use of brain scans to investigate the structure or function of the brain is common, either as simply a way of better assessing brain injury with high resolution pictures, or by examining the relative activations of different brain areas. Such technologies may include fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and positron emission tomography (PET), which yields data related to functioning, as well as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and computed axial tomography (CAT or CT), which yields structural data...

• the use of electrophysiological measures designed to measure the activation of the brain by measuring the electrical or magnetic field produced by the nervous system. This may include electroencephalography (EEG) or magneto-encephalography (MEG).

• the use of designed experimental tasks, often controlled by computer and typically measuring reaction time and accuracy on a particular tasks thought to be related to a specific neurocognitive process. An example of this is the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB).

See also

• Behavioral neurology
• Biological psychology
• Brain fitness
• Clinical neuropsychology
• Cognitive behavioral therapy
• Cognitive neuropsychiatry
• Cognitive neuropsychology
• Cognitive neuroscience
• Cognitive psychology
• Comparative neuropsychology
• Dialectical behavioral therapy
• Music therapy
• Neurocognitive
• Neurology
• Neuropsychiatry
• Neuropsychological test
• Neurophysiology
• Neuroscience
• Nonviolent communication
• Philosophy of mind
• Psychiatry
• Psychology
• Outline of psychology
• Rational emotive behavior therapy
• Important publications in neuropsychology

Notes

1. ^ Posner, M. I. & DiGirolamo, G. J. (2000) Cognitive Neuroscience:Origins and Promise,Psychological Bulletin, 126:6, 873-889.

Further reading

• Arnold, M.B. (1984). Memory and the Brain. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Attix, D.K. & Welsh-Bohmer, K.A. (2006). Geriatric Neuropsychology. The Guilford Press: New York.
• Beaumont, J.G.(1983). Introduction to Neuropsychology. Guilford Publications Inc. ISBN 0-89862-515-7
• Beaumont, J. G., Kenealy, P.M., & Rogers, M.J.C. (1999). The Blackwell Dictionary of Neuropsychology. Malden, Massachusetts,Blackwell Publishers.
• Broks, P. (2003). Into the Silent Land: Travels in Neuropsychology. London, Atlantic Books. ISBN 0-80214-128-5
• Bush, S.S. & Martin, T.A. (2005). Geriatric Neuropsychology: Practice Essentials. Taylor & Francis Group: New York.
• Cabeza, R. & Kingstone, A. (eds.) (2001) Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging and Cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
• Christensen, A-L. (1975) Luria's Neuropsychological Investigation. New York: Spectrum Publications.
• David, A.S. et al. (eds.) (1997). The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia: Brain Damage, Behaviour, and Cognition Series, East Sussex,UK, Psychology Press.
• Hannay, H.J. (1986). Experimental Techniques in Human Neuropsychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Hartlage, L.C. & Telzrow, C.F. (1985) The Neuropsychology of Individual Differences. New York: Plenum Press.
• Johnstone, B. & Stonnington, H.H. (2009). Rehabilitation of Neuropsychological Disorders, 2nd Edition. New York: Psychology Press.
• Kertesz, A. (ed.) (1994). Localization and Neuroimaging in Neuropsychology. Academic Press: New York.
• Kolb, B., & Wishaw, I.Q. (2003). Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (5th edition). Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-5300-6
• Levin, H.S., Eisenberg, H.M. & Benton, A.L. (1991) Frontal Lobe Function and Dysfunction. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Lezak, M.D., Howieson, D.B., & Loring, D.W. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
• Loring, D.W. (ed.) (1999). INS Dictionary of Neuropsychology. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Llinas, R (2001) "I of the Vortex". Boston, MIT Press.
• Luria, A. R. (1973). The Working Brain: An Introduction to Neuropsychology.
• Luria, A.R. (1976). Cognitive Development: Its Cultural and Social Foundations. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
• Luria, A.R. (1979). The Making of Mind: A Personal Account of Soviet Psychology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
• Luria, A.R. (1980). Higher Cortical Functions in Man. New York: Basic Books.
• Luria, A.R. (1982). Language and Cognition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
• Luria, A.R. (1987). The Mind of a Mnemonist. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
• Luria, A.R. & Tsvetkova, L.S. (1990) The Neuropsychological Analysis of Problem Solving. Orlando: Paul M. Deutsch Press.
• McCarthy, R.A. & Warrington, E.K. (1990). Cognitive Neuropsychology: A Clinical Introduction. New York: Academic Press.
• Mesulam, M-M. (2000). Principles of Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology – 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Miller, B.L. & Cummings, J.L. (1999) The Human Frontal Lobes. New York: The Guilford Press.
• Morgan, J.E. & Ricker, J.H. (2008). Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychology. New York: Psychology Press.
• Rains, G.D. (2002). Principles of Human Neuropsychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
• Stuss, D.T. & Knight, R.T. (eds.) (2002) Principles of Frontal Lobe Function. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Tarter, R.E., Van Thiel, D.H. & Edwards, K.L. (1988) Medical Neuropsychology: The Impact of Disease on Behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
• Tate, R.L. (2010). A Compendium of Tests, Scales and Questionnaires. Hove: Psychology Press.
• Heilbronner, R.L. (2005) Forensic Neuropsychology Casebook. New York, London. The Guilford Press.
• Groth-Marnat, G. Handbook of Psychological Assessment
• Goldstein, G. & Nussbaum, P.D. & Beers, S.R. Neuropsychology
• Strauss, E. & Sherman, E.M.S. & Spreen, O A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary

External links

• The National Academy of Neuropsychology a professional society that includes clinicians, scientist-practitioners, and researchers interested in neuropsychology
• The International Neuropsychological Society, "a multi-disciplinary non-profit organization dedicated to enhancing communication among the scientific disciplines which contribute to the understanding of brain-behavior relationships."
• New York Neuropsychology Group Multi-disciplinary non-profit organization founded in 1979 to provide a forum for discussion of brain-behavior relationships, provide opportunities for professional networking, and to disseminate information on training and educational opportunities for students and professionals; its Bilingual Task Force addresses problems of bilingual and non-English speaking clients.
• Division 40 of the American Psychological Association (Clinical Neuropsychology), "a scientific and professional organization of psychologists interested in the study of brain-behavior relationships, and the clinical application of that knowledge to human problems."
• Neuropsychology Central
• Clinical neuropsychology
• History of neuropsychology as a timeline.
• a cup of neuropsychology? selective resources about brain-behavior relations from Anthony H. Risser, Ph.D.
• brainblog.
• The American Board of Pediatric Neuropsychology. Board certifying body for practicing Pediatric Neuropsychologists and is the only board certifying body specific to pediatric neuropsychology.
• International Institute for Neuropsychological Research Not-for-profit institute aimed at supporting neuropsychological research internationally
• The Philadelphia Neuropsychology Society founding society of the Neuropsychology journal, serving neuropsychologists in the Philadelphia area
• Neuropsychological Assessment in Schools – from the Education Resources Information Center Clearinghouse on Tests Measurement and Evaluation, Washington DC
• The American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology Board certifying body for practicing Clinical Neuropsychologists. ABCN is a member of the American Board of Professional Psychology
• Dictionary of psychology

Categories: Neuropsychology | Clinical psychology | Branches of psychology

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